Structure of
a Final Thesis

A detailed structure of an empirically-focused paper

A more detailed scheme of the structure of a final thesis of an empiric character is presented.

This is a suggestion which can be modified following the topic and context. The list of chapters and subchapters may not hold for all empirical papers. Some students may change individual chapters for different ones to make them suit the needs of the report on a performed research. The first four parts of this scheme may form the basis to elaborate the project proposal.

1. Introduction
Briefly introduces the topic to the reader. What the paper is going to be about and why it is significant. It should succeed in winning the attention of a learned reader who is however, at the same time not a specialist in the given area. The climax of the introduction is in specifying the problem.

2.Problem
2.1. Reason, significance and the necessity of the research
The initial sentence must link this chapter with the preceding section. This paragraph should make the purpose of the paper more specific. The committee expects the author to argue convincingly for the research, its potential usefulness and its being current (3-4 sentences).

2.2. Theoretical framework for the proposed research
Clarifying whether the paper framework shall be pragmatic (i.e. applied study without the necessity to use a theory), eclectically (the framework is created by several theories which are useful for the purpose of completing the task) or whether it is focused on one theory. The author must explain why. In either case, the framework must be supported by suitable theoretical literature which offers a detailed explanation of the theory.

2.3. Specifying the problem
A short paragraph; probably the most important one, though. It represents a guide to everything that follows. It is actually an agreement between the researcher and the faculty about the substance of the research. Elucidate the concept of the problem clearly. You must be supported by the introduction. State the reasons for the study, what is going to be done and what are the anticipated results.

Problem can be expressed either by a question or as a statement which depends on the researched the nature of the problem. This statement directs the whole study, communicates information about the scope of the study and, without any details, tells in what way the study shall be conducted.

2.4. What will be examined: features, hypotheses, theory, research questions
Features of a problem are stated if forming a hypothesis is not required. Features represent then the research questions. They specifically define parts of a problem and make boundaries for the whole research. Hypothesis is defined as a solution to a problem or relationship between specified variables. It is of a guess-like character until evidence is found to invalidate or validate it. By a detailed examination of both the theoretical and factual framework of the research problem, one or more hypotheses can be specified. Without forming hypotheses, the researcher wastes time working without specific focus. When forming hypotheses, formulate them properly. Use simple language and attempt to make them meet the following criteria:

a) Are there any reasons, facts, theories or experience to justify it? Is the construction of the hypothesis valid?

b) Is it possible to collect evidence and analyze it in such a way to use it to test the validity of the hypothesis? Can a hypothesis be tested?

c) Is the hypothesis related to the problem which is being solved? Is the hypothesis relevant?

Another important feature is theory. Theory explains the relationships between events and facts. It is a principle or a set of principles which explain certain phenomena. Theory can create a framework to generate hypotheses or questions or problem features. Those define research procedures, aims and the manner of data collection.

However, it is important to hint that it is not necessary to form a hypothesis if we are looking for answers to specific questions. Still, if we believe that there is some relationship which is to be verified, then, a hypothesis is the best way to show what the research will deal with. Analysis and discussion must elucidate whether the topic is best approached by defining some hypothesis, asking questions or listing features of the problem or if we choose to combine all of the three approaches.

It is important to clarify the significance of used terms: problem, research aims, research question and hypothesis.

The relationships among research variables can be described graphically to make it easier for the reader to understand the problem.

2.5. Restricting and delineating the study
Study restrictions are given by factors which can affect the result of the research but which are not controlled by the researcher. They usually depend on the fact if the research plan is well-proposed. We attempt to find and discuss all factors which could misrepresent our results. Each study has some restrictions. For instance, in a questionnaire research it is necessary to ask whether the informant actually wants to answer the questions. Study restrictions might become a problem were the researcher not aware of them.

Study delineation is given by factors which can be controlled. They delineate what is included in the research and what is not. Delineation is an integral part of the research. For example, for some reasons, we stick to examining some group only.

2.6. Terms definition
There are two reasons why defining used terms is necessary. Each word may have more meanings unless it is not explicitly defined for the purpose of communication. Commonly used words may have special meanings when used in research. Sometimes, it may be good to include operations of certain constructs and define a term using constructs. This means defining it in such a way to demonstrate how we associate certain values to the respective variable. Analyzing the use of terms must be based on papers by outstanding scientists within the given field. It is also possible to make an overview about how the terms are used and after analyzing them, choose the way which is most useful for us.

2.7. Summary

3. Overview of literature

3.1. Historical overview

3.2. Theoretical and research literature specific for the Master / Doctoral topic

3.3. Research in related areas relevant for the Master / Doctoral topic

3.4. Reviewing the validity of the available theory and research works

3.5. Summary of what is known and unknown regarding the Master / Doctoral topic

3.6. How is this study beneficial for science

4. Research methods
4.1. The basic methodological principle used
Through methodology, this part of the paper identifies research methods which are going to be used by the author (case study, experiment). A more detailed description of individual procedures shall be included in the following sections. In a separate chapter, brief characteristics of the types of research methodologies are included (see the appendix at the end of the text).

4.2. Examined population or selection
Selection means a part of population; sometimes it is referred to as a sample. It can mean people or objects (schools, classes, or performed studies in meta-analysis). We must give reasons for selecting a part of population or subpopulation and a suitable number of individuals. It must be described how the access to the subset of population will be gained. Qualitative research uses different methods to select subjects than research based on statistical examination or experiments. Neither a suitable number of subjects nor a random selection are taken into consideration, unlike in quantitative research. For instance, qualitative research uses a method of selecting an extreme case; typical case or the method of a snowball. Cases are selected with regard to generated theory, the suggestion of which is often the aim of this type of research.

4.3. Measuring techniques and methods of data collection
Description of measuring and other procedures to acquire data together with commenting on validity and reliability regarding the type of research.

4.4. Pilot study
If a pilot study is carried out, here the experienced gained is described. A pilot study leads to modifying the whole plan.

4.5. Data collection
The way of applying measuring and other procedures to gain data for a given population sample and type of research (interview, mail, over the phone).

4.6. Data analysis
Description of statistical procedures or other procedures for data analysis. If they are unusual, they must be described in greater detail. References to related professional literature must be included.

4.7. Solving unusual situations
Suggesting the solution of ethic problems. It is also possible to state here which approach shall be taken to other predictable situations which may threaten the positive result of the project.

4.8. Specific procedures
Step by step, in a chronological order, the reader is told what the research procedure shall be. This includes correspondence, proposal of questionnaires, pilot study, interview intervention performance, consultations and other activities.

4.9. Summary
A brief summary of the most important information of this chapter.

5. Results
This part begins with description of relevant material which was collected during research. It also describes the preparation of data for assessment and respective statistical or other procedures for data analysis in a specific context. Summarizing data are presented such as descriptive statistics, tables or graphs. Duplicate description of data should be avoided. Individual entries are commented on in relation to found trends, differences or specialties. Data which are not commented on should be included in appendix. Results of inference statistics (t-test, F-test, etc.) are described as well as other partial results (mean values, correlations, frequency) which are important for interpretation. The reader should not be left with numbers only; he/she should be guided through the presented material.

The material must be structured into subchapters according to meaning.

The part of qualitative research which includes results has different appearance. There are no numbers but mainly texts: environment description, fragments of interviews and the researcher’s commentary.

The researcher examines the material for new categories, configuration and topics and accompanies the material with a certain viewpoint. He/she sorts out and puts together experience of the participants and phenomena which have some characteristics in common. The results of the research are illustrated using examples from collected data.

Results can also be presented graphically.

5.1. Research plan (implementation commentary)
5.2. Data description (data, tables, graphs, descriptive statistical characteristics)
5.3. Evidence to support or reject hypotheses or research questions
5.4. Unexpected results
5.5. Summary of what has been found

6. Discussion, consequences, recommendations
The parts containing results and interpretation must be separated. The results part informas about results exhaustively and objectively. This part presents the possibility of the author to include his/her own personal opinion into assessing the results. However, such opinion must be based on precise and logical argumentation. The results are interpreted in relation to the objectives of the paper, used methods and defined hypotheses and questions. Based on the results, modification of theory or practice may be suggested. Results must be set into the context of the knowledge so far within the given scientific field or professional activity. Implications for theory and practice must be assessed separately; further research may be suggested to treat new hypotheses or to verify the results.

Ideally, the researcher repeats the aim of the study at the beginning to allow the reader to understand further explanation more easily. Then, results are summarized without expressing them numerically. The researcher also attempts to insert alternative explanation of the results if they are not in accordance with expected hypotheses. It is important that the author systematically goes through all results which are in disagreement with his/her expectations. He/she should comment on why this happened. This section should again include restrictions of the study. The author specifically examines research both methods and the selection of subjects in order to be able to comment on the influence on internal and external validity of the results. Each study has such restrictions and the author is required to state them.

At the end, the author suggests further directions of the research; however, they must be stated specifically, not only through general statements. This part is important for researchers who are interested in further research. On the other hand, other readers may also be interested in new areas of research because this elucidates what is still to be done and what still remains unknown.

6.1. Discussion
6.1.1. Conclusions drawn from the results
6.1.2. Alternative explanation of the results
6.1.3. The relationship of the results and conclusions to the knowledge and professional literature so far
6.1.4. Strengths, weaknesses and restrictions of the paper
6.2. Consequences
6.2.1. Consequences for practice or making decisions
6.2.2. Consequences for scientific knowledge within the field
6.2.3. Consequences for forming theories
6.2.4. Consequences for further research
6.3. Recommendations
6.3.1. Recommendations for further research or changes in research methodology
6.3.2. Recommendations for changes in scientific concepts or practice
6.3.3. Recommendations for changes or modification of the theoretical constructions so far
6.3.4  Recommendations related to the change in organization, procedures, practices or behavior
6.4. Summary

References

Appendices

Appendix A, B, …

This scheme may be modified to suit the context.

General characteristics of the research plan

Identifying and describing the target population and selection

Describing interventions (as far as evaluating a therapy of project is concerned)

Describing instruments and techniques of measuring

Presenting the method of data collection

Presenting the procedures of data storage

Explaining the method of data analysis

Describing the procedures of preventing nonstandard events

Discussing external and internal validity of the paper. This may include information on restrictions and delineation of the paper.